The impact of sustainability on metal injection molding becomes clear as manufacturers adopt advanced technologies to optimize material use and minimize waste. Industries such as aerospace and automotive rely on MIM to create lightweight, durable parts, reducing energy consumption and raw material loss. Companies now use only the necessary amount of metal, recycle waste, and explore eco-friendly binders. These sustainable choices not only lower carbon emissions but also help maintain product quality and operational efficiency.
Key Takeaways
- Sustainable metal injection molding (MIM) reduces resource consumption by optimizing designs and using recyclable materials.
- Localized production minimizes transportation emissions, supporting cleaner manufacturing practices.
- Advanced technologies, like energy-efficient furnaces, significantly lower energy costs and greenhouse gas emissions.
- Implementing closed-loop systems helps recycle materials and water, reducing waste and environmental impact.
- Using biodegradable binders in MIM can enhance product performance while supporting environmental goals.
- Companies that adopt sustainable practices often see cost savings and improved product quality.
- Meeting stricter regulatory standards can drive innovation and open new market opportunities for manufacturers.
- Collaboration within the industry fosters the development of eco-friendly materials and efficient processes.
Impact of Sustainability on MIM Processes
Direct Effects on Manufacturing
Reduced Resource Consumption
Sustainable metal injection molding (MIM) practices focus on minimizing the use of raw materials and energy. Companies now prioritize design optimization, which reduces waste by following Design for Manufacturability (DFM) principles. Engineers select recyclable, recycled, and biodegradable materials to further enhance sustainability. Localized production also plays a key role, as manufacturers move operations closer to end-users, cutting down on transportation and associated emissions.
Tip: Design optimization not only saves resources but also improves part quality and consistency.
The following table highlights the most significant direct effects of sustainability initiatives on MIM manufacturing processes:
Aspect | Description |
---|---|
Design Optimization | Reduces waste through Design for Manufacturability (DFM), aligning with sustainable manufacturing principles. |
Material Selection | Involves using recyclable, recycled, biodegradable, and bioplastic materials to enhance sustainability. |
Localized Production | Minimizes carbon footprints by consolidating production closer to home, allowing better environmental practices. |
When comparing sustainable manufacturing practices to traditional methods, the differences in resource consumption and waste generation become clear:
Aspect | Sustainable Practices | Traditional Methods |
---|---|---|
Resource Consumption | Utilizes bio-based and recycled materials, reducing virgin material use. | Primarily relies on petroleum-based materials. |
Waste Generation | Implements closed-loop recycling and advanced molding techniques to minimize waste. | Often results in higher waste due to inefficient processes. |
Water Usage | Employs closed-loop cooling systems to conserve water. | Typically uses more water without recycling. |
Efficiency | Lean manufacturing principles enhance productivity and reduce waste. | Less focus on efficiency, leading to more waste. |
These changes demonstrate the impact of sustainability on MIM processes, as companies shift toward more efficient and environmentally friendly operations.
Lower Emissions and Pollution
Sustainable MIM practices directly address emissions and pollution. Manufacturers adopt advanced molding techniques and closed-loop systems, which significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. By using recycled and bio-based materials, companies lower their reliance on petroleum-based inputs, further decreasing their environmental footprint. Localized production also helps, as it reduces the need for long-distance transportation, which often contributes to air pollution.
Many facilities now use closed-loop cooling systems to conserve water and prevent contamination. These systems recycle water within the process, minimizing waste and reducing the risk of pollutants entering the environment. As a result, the impact of sustainability extends beyond resource savings to include cleaner air and water.
Industry Standards and Compliance
Green Certifications in MIM
Industry standards play a crucial role in promoting sustainability within metal injection molding. Organizations such as the Metal Injection Molding Association (MIMA) set global manufacturing standards that often exceed regulatory requirements. MIMA advocates for greener manufacturing practices, including recycling and energy efficiency. Their commitment to sustainability helps shape the future of MIM by encouraging companies to adopt best practices.
Note: Green certifications signal to customers and partners that a company meets or exceeds environmental benchmarks.
Meeting Regulatory Requirements
Regulatory bodies worldwide have begun to enforce stricter sustainability standards. The European Union, for example, plans to implement new regulations by 2024, aiming for a climate-neutral economy by 2050. Companies must report on sustainability-related impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions and resource consumption. These requirements push manufacturers to adopt sustainable practices and improve transparency.
- The European Union will enforce sustainability standards by 2024, focusing on climate-neutral economies by 2050.
- Companies must report on sustainability-related impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions and resource consumption.
- The Metal Injection Molding Association (MIMA) promotes sustainability by establishing benchmarks for waste reduction and resource efficiency.
- MIMA sets global manufacturing standards that exceed regulatory requirements.
- The association advocates for greener manufacturing practices, including recycling and energy efficiency.
- MIMA’s commitment to sustainability helps shape the future of metal injection molding.
The impact of sustainability on MIM processes becomes more pronounced as industry standards evolve and regulatory requirements tighten. Companies that embrace these changes position themselves as leaders in responsible manufacturing.
Sustainable Technologies in Metal Injection Molding
Energy-Efficient Equipment and Systems
Advanced Furnace Designs
Manufacturers have adopted advanced furnace designs to improve energy efficiency in metal injection molding. These furnaces use single tempered tooling, which reduces the need for multiple heating cycles. Operators experience less handling and shorter processing times. The result is a significant reduction in energy consumption and operational costs.
Evidence | Description |
---|---|
Energy Savings | Approx. 20% less energy is required by using a single tempered tooling and reducing handling operations. |
Energy-efficient furnaces also help companies meet sustainability goals. They lower greenhouse gas emissions and support cleaner production environments. The impact of sustainability becomes clear as these technologies drive down energy use and costs.
Smart Automation Integration
Smart automation systems have transformed MIM operations. Automated equipment monitors and adjusts processing parameters in real time. This technology ensures consistent part quality and reduces human error. Systems like Husky’s HyPET®6e improve production speeds while lowering energy consumption.
Note: Energy costs are a major operational expense for manufacturers. Implementing energy-efficient technologies is essential for predictable manufacturing costs.
Smart automation also enables better resource management. Companies can track energy usage and optimize production schedules. These improvements support sustainable manufacturing and help businesses remain competitive.
Material Recycling and Reuse in MIM
Metal Powder Recovery Methods
Metal powder recovery plays a vital role in sustainable MIM. Operators collect unused or excess metal powders from the molding process. These powders undergo cleaning and reconditioning before reuse. This practice reduces waste and conserves valuable resources.
Recycling of Polymer-Based Feedstocks
Polymer-based feedstocks can be recycled multiple times without losing essential properties. Studies show that polymer binders maintain acceptable thermal and rheological characteristics for up to four recycling cycles. This process supports sustainable manufacturing and reduces the need for new materials.
- The study evaluates the recyclability of polymer-based feedstocks in MIM.
- It assesses how repeated recycling affects the structural integrity and thermal stability of polymer binders.
- Polymer binders can be recycled up to four times while maintaining acceptable properties.
Material recycling and reuse help manufacturers lower costs and minimize environmental impact.
Waste Reduction and Process Optimization
Closed-Loop Manufacturing Systems
Closed-loop manufacturing systems have become standard in sustainable MIM operations. These systems recycle water and materials within the production cycle. Companies reduce waste and prevent pollution by reusing resources.
Digital Process Monitoring
Digital process monitoring allows manufacturers to optimize mold design and adjust processing parameters such as temperature, pressure, and injection speed. Real-time data helps operators identify inefficiencies and implement recycling strategies.
- Optimizing mold design
- Adjusting processing parameters
- Implementing recycling strategies
These process optimization strategies reduce waste and improve overall efficiency. The impact of sustainability continues to shape the future of metal injection molding through technological innovation.
Eco-Friendly Materials and Alternatives
Metal injection molding (MIM) continues to evolve as manufacturers seek eco-friendly materials and alternatives. These innovations help reduce environmental impact while maintaining high performance standards. Companies now prioritize materials that support sustainability goals and align with industry regulations.
Biodegradable Binders
Biodegradable binders have emerged as a promising solution in sustainable MIM. These binders break down naturally after use, reducing the burden on landfills and minimizing long-term waste. Manufacturers use biodegradable iron to create porous structures with controlled porosity. This approach allows engineers to tailor mechanical and corrosion properties for specific applications.
- Advancements in production techniques enable the creation of porous biodegradable iron, which supports tissue engineering and temporary implants.
- Alloying selected elements enhances the corrosion rate and reduces stiffness, making these materials suitable for medical devices.
- Researchers focus on developing multifunctional biodegradable iron by combining porosity, alloying, and coatings. This combination improves interaction with biological systems and expands potential uses.
Tip: Biodegradable binders not only support environmental goals but also open new possibilities in medical and bioengineering fields.
Low-Impact Metal Alloys
Low-impact metal alloys play a crucial role in reducing the environmental footprint of MIM. These alloys require less energy to produce and often contain recycled content. Manufacturers select alloys based on their ability to minimize emissions and support cleaner production methods.
The following table highlights several eco-friendly practices and their environmental benefits in MIM:
Eco-Friendly Practice | Description |
---|---|
Energy Efficiency | MIM uses up to 97% of material, significantly reducing waste compared to traditional methods. |
Material Optimization | Allows for a wide range of metals and alloys, enabling the selection of environmentally friendly materials. |
Reduced Carbon Footprint | Fewer manufacturing steps lead to less energy consumption and a smaller carbon footprint. |
Recycling Opportunities | Most materials in MIM can be recycled, reducing the need for raw material extraction. |
Cleaner Production Methods | Advanced filtration systems in MIM plants help reduce harmful emissions. |
Supporting Sustainable Supply Chains | Efficient processes reduce the need for transporting raw materials and waste products. |
Low-impact alloys, such as those with reduced heavy metal content, support both environmental and operational goals. Companies benefit from lower energy costs and improved compliance with environmental standards. These materials also help manufacturers meet growing demand for sustainable products in global markets.
By adopting biodegradable binders and low-impact metal alloys, the MIM industry demonstrates a strong commitment to sustainability. These choices not only protect the environment but also drive innovation and open new opportunities across multiple sectors.
Environmental Benefits of Sustainable MIM
Lower Carbon Footprint
Energy Savings in Production
Manufacturers in the metal injection molding industry have made significant progress in reducing energy consumption. Advanced furnace designs and smart automation systems allow operators to optimize heating cycles and minimize energy waste. MIM achieves up to 97% material utilization, which leads to less energy required for melting and forming metals. Compared to traditional forging or machining, MIM uses less energy and produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
- MIM minimizes waste through near-net-shape forming.
- The process utilizes recyclable metal powders and reusable tooling.
- Energy consumption in MIM remains lower than in conventional metalworking.
Reduced Transportation Needs
Localized production strategies help companies reduce transportation requirements. By moving manufacturing closer to end-users, businesses decrease the distance materials and finished products travel. This shift lowers fuel consumption and emissions from shipping. Efficient supply chains also support green initiatives and ESG goals, as parts produced by MIM can often be cleaned and reused, further reducing the need for new shipments.
Conservation of Resources
Efficient Material Usage
Efficient material usage stands as a core principle in sustainable MIM. The process uses nearly all input material, which results in minimal waste. Near-net-shape forming ensures that parts require little to no secondary machining. Companies benefit from lower raw material costs and decreased landfill waste.
- Metal injection molding achieves up to 97% material utilization.
- Buying recycled materials often costs less than sourcing new metals.
- Scrap metal collection and reuse promote a circular economy.
Water and Energy Conservation
Resource conservation strategies in MIM focus on both water and energy. Facilities implement closed-loop water systems, allowing water to be reused repeatedly. Advanced cooling technologies consume less water and maintain high efficiency. Regular water quality monitoring ensures compliance with environmental regulations.
Strategy | Description |
---|---|
Closed-Loop Water Systems | Recycling systems allow water to be reused repeatedly in processes. |
Water Quality Monitoring | Regular monitoring ensures compliance with environmental standards. |
Efficient Cooling Systems | Advanced technologies consume less water than traditional methods. |
Collect and Reuse Scrap Metal | Routine collection routes ensure every piece of scrap is reused. |
Efficient Material Handling Equipment | Advanced technologies streamline sorting and recycling of materials. |
Pollution Prevention and Safer Waste Management
Cleaner Production Methods
Cleaner production methods in MIM reduce the risk of pollution. Advanced filtration systems capture harmful emissions before they reach the environment. Process monitoring allows operators to identify and correct inefficiencies, preventing unnecessary waste and emissions.
Improved Waste Handling
Effective waste handling practices enhance sustainability and reduce environmental risks. Companies focus on recycling green parts already considered scrap, using controlled disposal processes. Scrap collection and remanufacturing produce recycled filaments for new feedstock, supporting a circular economy.
Methodology | Description |
---|---|
Process Monitoring | Preventive actions monitor uncertainties and provide in-situ corrections to reduce rejection costs. |
Material Recycling | Recycling of green parts requires controlled disposal processes. |
Scraps Reuse | Collecting and remanufacturing scraps produces recycled filaments for new feedstock. |
The impact of sustainability in metal injection molding extends beyond resource savings. Companies achieve lower carbon footprints, conserve vital resources, and prevent pollution through advanced technologies and responsible waste management.
Economic and Operational Advantages
Cost Savings from Sustainable Practices
Reduced Energy and Material Costs
Sustainable practices in metal injection molding deliver measurable cost savings. Companies invest in energy-efficient machines that lower electricity consumption during production. Operators optimize process parameters, such as temperature and speed, to further enhance energy efficiency. Many facilities recover and reuse excess heat, which reduces utility expenses. These strategies help companies maintain profitability while supporting environmental goals.
- Energy-efficient machines reduce electricity bills.
- Optimized process parameters improve energy use.
- Heat recovery systems cut overall energy costs.
Material savings also play a significant role. By recycling metal powders and polymer feedstocks, manufacturers decrease the need for new raw materials. This approach not only conserves resources but also reduces procurement costs.
Less Production Waste
Minimizing waste remains a core benefit of sustainable MIM. Companies implement closed-loop systems to recycle scrap and excess material. This reduces landfill contributions and lowers disposal costs. Lean manufacturing principles further streamline operations, ensuring that every resource is used efficiently.
Companies that reduce waste and energy use often see improved profit margins and stronger financial performance.
Enhanced Product Quality and Consistency
Improved Part Performance
Sustainability initiatives directly improve part performance. The automotive industry, for example, uses eco-friendly binders and recycling practices to produce high-quality components. Smart manufacturing technologies help reduce waste and support environmental objectives. Complete binder removal ensures that finished parts meet strict performance standards.
- Eco-friendly binders maintain part integrity.
- Smart manufacturing reduces process variability.
- Complete binder removal preserves mechanical properties.
Fewer Manufacturing Defects
Reducing defects is another advantage of sustainable MIM. Recyclability of excess or scrap material supports lean manufacturing and minimizes rework. Companies that monitor processes closely can identify and correct issues early, leading to fewer defective parts and higher customer satisfaction.
Market Competitiveness and Growth
Meeting Demand for Green Products
The market for green metal injection molded products continues to expand. Healthcare, automotive, and electronics sectors drive significant demand. The industry is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 9.74%, fueled by technological advancements and the need for lightweight, miniaturized components.
- Over 180 new production lines were commissioned globally in 2023.
- More than 6,000 metric tons of annual MIM output capacity were added.
- Investments focus on process efficiency and material innovation.
Access to New and Emerging Markets
Sustainable practices enhance market competitiveness. Companies face increasing regulatory pressure from agencies like the EPA to adopt environmentally friendly methods. Those that align with regulations avoid penalties and gain access to government incentives. Innovation in green powders and optimized processes opens doors to new markets.
Evidence Type | Description |
---|---|
Regulatory Pressure | The MIM industry faces stricter environmental standards from agencies. |
Competitive Advantage | Compliance helps companies secure incentives and improve market position. |
Innovation Opportunities | Eco-friendly materials foster new product development and market entry. |
The impact of sustainability extends beyond environmental benefits. It drives cost savings, improves product quality, and positions companies for growth in a competitive global market.
Evolving Practices and Future Trends in Sustainable MIM
Innovations Driving Sustainability
AI-Driven Process Optimization
Artificial intelligence is transforming metal injection molding by enabling real-time process optimization. Machine learning algorithms analyze production data and adjust parameters to maximize efficiency. Operators use predictive analytics to anticipate defects and reduce waste. AI-driven systems help manufacturers achieve consistent quality while lowering energy consumption. These technologies support the development of biodegradable binders and energy-efficient production methods, which stand out as promising innovations in sustainable MIM.
- Development of biodegradable binders
- Reduction of waste
- Employment of energy-efficient production methods
Manufacturers who invest in AI gain a competitive edge and contribute to the industry’s shift toward greener practices.
Platforms Like iMFLUX
Platforms such as iMFLUX introduce adaptive process control to metal injection molding. These systems automatically adjust injection speeds and pressures, optimizing material flow and reducing cycle times. Companies benefit from lower energy use and improved part consistency. iMFLUX technology also supports the use of eco-friendly materials, aligning with global sustainability initiatives. The integration of smart platforms accelerates the adoption of sustainable manufacturing across the industry.
Industry Collaboration and Standardization
Industry collaborations play a pivotal role in advancing sustainable MIM. Leading companies form strategic alliances to develop innovative alloys and scalable processes. These partnerships focus on eco-friendly methods and recyclable materials, transforming the industry landscape. Minimal material waste and energy-efficient processes align with global sustainability goals. Research and development investments drive progress and foster the creation of new solutions.
Industry collaborations and standardization efforts are pivotal in improving process efficiencies and developing innovative materials. These initiatives are essential for meeting the stringent standards required for sustainable manufacturing, thereby shaping the future of sustainable metal injection molding.
Development of Industry Standards
Standardization ensures that sustainable practices become the norm in metal injection molding. Organizations establish guidelines for material selection, process efficiency, and waste reduction. Industry standards help manufacturers meet regulatory requirements and improve product quality. The emphasis on eco-friendly processes and recyclable materials supports the transition to a circular economy. Companies that adopt these standards position themselves as leaders in responsible manufacturing.
- Emphasis on eco-friendly processes and recyclable materials is transforming the industry landscape.
- Minimal material waste and energy-efficient processes of MIM align with global sustainability initiatives.
- Leading industry players are investing in R&D and forming strategic alliances to develop innovative alloys and enhance process scalability.
Anticipated Regulatory and Market Changes
Stricter Environmental Standards
Regulatory agencies, including the U.S. EPA, continue to tighten environmental standards for industrial manufacturing. Companies must comply with new rules that target hazardous waste reduction and promote sustainable practices. The impact of sustainability grows as manufacturers adopt eco-friendly binders and energy-efficient sintering processes. Compliance challenges encourage innovation and drive the adoption of advanced technologies.
Incentives for Green Manufacturing
Governments and industry groups offer incentives to support green manufacturing. Companies receive benefits for using sustainable materials and implementing closed-loop systems. The market shifts toward eco-friendly products, influencing material choices and production methods. Innovations in process efficiency become crucial as manufacturers seek to reduce energy consumption and improve yield rates.
Evidence Type | Description |
---|---|
Regulatory Change | Stricter environmental regulations are anticipated, pushing companies towards sustainable practices. |
Market Change | A shift towards eco-friendly materials is expected, influencing material choices in metal injection molding. |
Process Innovation | Innovations in process efficiency will be crucial, with companies investing in energy-efficient production methods. |
Compliance Challenges | The tightening of environmental regulations, particularly by the U.S. EPA, will create compliance challenges for the industry. |
Circular Economy | The drive towards circularity is leading to collaborations for closed-loop systems in metal powder usage. |
- Stricter environmental regulations will necessitate the adoption of eco-friendly binders and recyclable feedstocks.
- The market is shifting towards sustainable materials, influencing production processes.
- Innovations in process efficiency are being prioritized to reduce energy consumption and improve yield rates.
Manufacturers who embrace these changes will lead the way in sustainable metal injection molding, shaping the future of the industry.
Real-World Impact of Sustainability in MIM
Case Studies from Leading Industries
Automotive Applications and Lightweighting
Automotive manufacturers have embraced sustainable MIM to achieve lightweighting goals and reduce emissions. Companies like BMW and Tesla use MIM to produce complex, lightweight components for electric vehicles. These parts include gears, brackets, and housings. Engineers select low-impact alloys and recycled metal powders to minimize environmental impact. Lightweight MIM parts help vehicles achieve better fuel efficiency and lower carbon footprints.
Automotive suppliers report several benefits from sustainable MIM:
- Reduced Vehicle Weight: Lightweight MIM parts replace heavier cast or machined components.
- Lower Emissions: Efficient material use and localized production decrease greenhouse gas output.
- Improved Performance: Precision MIM parts enhance reliability and safety.
Note: Automotive leaders view sustainable MIM as essential for meeting global emissions standards and consumer demand for green vehicles.
Medical Device Manufacturing
Medical device companies rely on sustainable MIM for high-precision, biocompatible components. Firms such as Stryker and Medtronic use biodegradable binders and low-impact alloys to produce surgical tools, orthopedic implants, and dental devices. These materials meet strict regulatory requirements for safety and environmental responsibility.
Key outcomes in medical device manufacturing include:
- Enhanced Biocompatibility: Biodegradable binders reduce the risk of adverse reactions in patients.
- Regulatory Compliance: Sustainable practices help companies meet FDA and EU standards.
- Resource Efficiency: Closed-loop systems recycle metal powders and minimize waste.
A comparison of sustainable MIM benefits in automotive and medical sectors:
Industry | Key Benefit | Example Application |
---|---|---|
Automotive | Lightweighting | EV gear housings |
Medical | Biocompatibility | Orthopedic implants |
Lessons Learned and Best Practices
Overcoming Implementation Challenges
Companies face several challenges when adopting sustainable MIM. Initial investments in new equipment and training can be significant. Some firms encounter technical hurdles with recycling feedstocks or integrating digital monitoring systems. Industry leaders recommend the following strategies:
- Start Small: Pilot projects allow teams to test new materials and processes.
- Invest in Training: Skilled operators maximize the benefits of advanced technologies.
- Collaborate: Partnerships with suppliers and research institutions accelerate innovation.
Tip: Continuous improvement and open communication help teams overcome resistance to change.
Measuring Sustainability Success
Successful companies track sustainability metrics to evaluate progress. They monitor energy consumption, material utilization, and waste reduction. Regular audits and third-party certifications validate achievements. Many organizations use digital dashboards to visualize key performance indicators.
Common metrics for measuring sustainability in MIM:
- Energy used per part produced
- Percentage of recycled material in feedstock
- Waste diverted from landfill
A focus on data-driven decision-making ensures that sustainability efforts deliver real value. Companies that measure and report progress build trust with customers and regulators.
Sustainability continues to transform metal injection molding. Companies see long-term benefits as they adopt greener technologies and materials. The industry moves steadily toward eco-friendly solutions, driven by innovation and regulatory demands. The impact of sustainability shapes every stage of production, from design to waste management. Manufacturers who embrace these changes lead the way in creating efficient, responsible, and future-ready operations.
FAQ
What is sustainable metal injection molding (MIM)?
Sustainable MIM uses eco-friendly materials, energy-efficient equipment, and recycling methods. Companies aim to reduce waste, lower emissions, and conserve resources. These practices help manufacturers meet environmental standards and improve operational efficiency.
How do companies recycle materials in MIM?
Operators collect unused metal powders and polymer feedstocks. They clean and recondition these materials for reuse in new production cycles. This process reduces raw material costs and minimizes environmental impact.
Why do manufacturers choose biodegradable binders?
Biodegradable binders break down naturally after use. They reduce landfill waste and support medical applications, such as temporary implants. Engineers select these binders to meet strict environmental and health regulations.
What role does automation play in sustainable MIM?
Automation systems monitor and adjust production parameters in real time. These systems improve part quality, reduce energy use, and minimize human error. Companies use automation to achieve consistent results and support sustainability goals.
How does sustainable MIM benefit the environment?
Sustainable MIM lowers carbon emissions, conserves water, and reduces waste. Companies use advanced filtration and closed-loop systems to prevent pollution. These efforts protect natural resources and promote cleaner manufacturing.
Are there industry standards for sustainable MIM?
Yes. Organizations like the Metal Injection Molding Association set guidelines for material selection, process efficiency, and waste reduction. Companies that follow these standards improve product quality and meet regulatory requirements.
What challenges do companies face when adopting sustainable MIM?
Firms often invest in new equipment and training. Technical issues may arise with recycling or digital monitoring. Collaboration, pilot projects, and ongoing training help companies overcome these challenges and achieve sustainability targets.
Can sustainable MIM improve product quality?
Yes. Sustainable practices reduce defects and ensure consistent part performance. Companies use smart monitoring and eco-friendly materials to produce high-quality components for industries such as automotive and medical devices.